Bottle No. 5 – The Amaterasu Myth and Kakinomoto no Hitomaro
Introduction
This series of notes on Amaterasu Ōmikami has now reached its final chapter.
From this point on, the discussion takes on a slightly different tone from the arguments I have presented so far, which were based on historical records and archaeological findings.
Within myself, however, there remains a single image that has steadily taken shape—an image that has emerged only after years of tracing this period and the people who lived through it.
It is not something that can be proven.
It is, rather, a personal reflection, guided by intuition and imagination.
In that sense, what follows may fairly be called speculation.
Even so, it is the story that I myself find most convincing after a long period of study and contemplation.
I would like to make that clear at the outset.
1. The Reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō, and the System Centered on Amaterasu
When we look back on the political reforms of Emperor Tenmu and those of Empress Jitō, who inherited his intentions, a consistent direction becomes apparent.
That direction was the gradual consolidation of military power, economic strength, and religious authority—previously held by individual clans—into the hands of the emperor.
This trajectory itself was an extension of the policies pursued by Emperor Tenji since the Taika Reforms.
However, Emperor Tenji did not succeed in fixing imperial succession firmly along a direct lineage, and that unresolved tension ultimately erupted as the Jinshin War.
Ironically, it was Tenji’s younger brother, Emperor Tenmu, who finally completed a system of direct imperial succession.
During the reigns of Tenmu and Jitō, a decisive new element was introduced—one that had not existed before.
This was the systematization of the gods with Amaterasu Ōmikami placed at their apex: in other words, the centralization of the divine order.
Originally, Amaterasu appears to have been deeply connected to forms of worship practiced primarily among maritime peoples.
By elevating this deity to the status of a state god and by introducing the concept of a heavenly realm, a new narrative was constructed: the descendants of Amaterasu descend from the heavens and rule the earthly world.
This is what we know as the myth of the Heavenly Descent.
The earlier image of a god arriving horizontally from beyond the eastern sea was transformed into a vertical movement—from the heavens down to the land below.
Through this myth, a new logic was established: the emperor was the direct descendant of Amaterasu, the supreme deity of the world.
The gods of local clans were integrated beneath Amaterasu, and imperial succession was likewise restricted to those of that divine lineage.
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Kagami-tsukuri Shrine
Shrine enshrining the casting mold said to have been
used for Amaterasu’s sacred mirror) |
Amano-Iwato Shrine
A shrine dedicated to the Heavenly Rock Cave,
where Amaterasu is said to have hidden herself. |
Amano-Manai Well
A sacred spring where Amaterasu is said to have
washed the Ten-span Sword. |
2. Ise Grand Shrine, the Saigū System, and Fujiwara Palace
In order to unify and govern the country, it was necessary to implement measures to control powerful clans, establish an agrarian-based economy, and resolve issues of imperial succession.
For this purpose, Amaterasu had to be positioned unmistakably as the supreme deity of Japan.
In my view, the framework of rule centered on Amaterasu was devised by Emperor Tenmu himself, and subsequently elaborated by his consort Uno no Sarara (later Empress Jitō), together with Tenmu’s sons and daughters.
Once Amaterasu was established as the highest deity, it became essential to disseminate the myth that her descendants descended from the heavens and ruled the land—and that those descendants were the imperial family.
This myth had to permeate every corner of the country.
It was for this purpose that Ise Grand Shrine was established.
According to the narrative that developed, it was considered too awe-inspiring to keep the sacred mirror, Yata no Kagami, within the imperial palace.
The mirror was therefore taken out, and after searching for its rightful resting place, Ise was chosen.
Next, in order to make it widely known that the imperial family personally worshipped Amaterasu, the Saigū system was created.
An unmarried woman of imperial lineage would serve Amaterasu on behalf of the emperor.
The first to assume this role was Ōku no Himemiko, the daughter of Emperor Tenmu and his late consort Princess Ōta, and the elder sister of Prince Ōtsu.
As noted earlier, the Saigū was the institution that served Amaterasu in place of the emperor, and its head was the Saio.
A single unmarried woman was selected through divination using turtle shells and would serve for the duration of one emperor’s reign.
Although the establishment of the Saigū and Ise Shrine occurred during Emperor Tenmu’s time, later narratives deliberately pushed the origins of Ise much further back into the distant past—perhaps to lend the institution greater authority.
At the same time, construction began on Fujiwara Palace, and it is highly likely that Fujiwara Palace and Ise (specifically Futami-ga-ura) were deliberately aligned along an east–west axis.
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Saikū Historical Site
A reconstructed model of the sanctuary where the Saio Imperial Priestess) is said to have performed rituals. |
Iwami Kagura – Amano-Iwato
Iwami Kagura performance depicting the myth of
the Heavenly Rock Cave.
(Designated Intangible Cultural Property).
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Suzaku Avenue of Fujiwara Palace
The main ceremonial avenue of Fujiwara Palace, once
the heart of the ancient capital. |
3. The Spread of the Amaterasu Myth and Kakinomoto no Hitomaro
With the establishment of Ise Shrine, Fujiwara Palace, and the Saigū, a grand framework was now in place.
The next task was to disseminate the myth of the Heavenly Descent throughout the country and to ensure that the emperor was recognized everywhere as the sole legitimate ruler of Yamato.
I believe that the person who played a crucial role in creating and spreading this nation-building myth was Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, later revered as a court poet.
The compilation of an official national history became an urgent matter.
This effort would later culminate in the Nihon Shoki, but beforehand, provincial gazetteers (Fudoki) were collected and used as the basis for compiling the Kojiki.
Within the Kojiki, the origins of Amaterasu and the birth of Japan are narrated as myth.
The descent of Ninigi-no-Mikoto, entrusted with the earthly realm by Amaterasu, becomes the foundational story legitimizing imperial rule.
At this point, one might object: the Kojiki was orally transmitted by Hieda no Are and compiled by Ō no Yasumaro—where, then, does Hitomaro appear?
But is that truly the case?
My own conclusion is that the framework of the Amaterasu myth was shaped under Emperor Tenmu’s direction by a group consisting of Princess Uno (later Empress Jitō), Tenmu’s sons and daughters, and Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, and that it was completed during the reign of Empress Genmei, the consort of Prince Kusakabe.
I would go further still: I believe that Hieda no Are was none other than Kakinomoto no Hitomaro himself, and that he participated in the compilation of the Kojiki under Ō no Yasumaro.
The place where this work was carried out, I suspect, was Hieda in Nara—present-day Hieda-chō in Yamatokōriyama City.
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Kakimoto Temple Ruins
Ruins believed to mark the Yamato base of
the Kakimoto clan. |
Uta-zuka Mound
The “Poem Mound,” where Kakinomoto no Hitomaro’s
hair is said to be buried.
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Eigen-ji (Shihon-zan)
The temple traditionally believed to stand at the site of Kakinomoto no Hitomaro’s gravel. |
4. The Jinshin War and the “Missing Month”
From here on, my reflections move fully into the realm of imagination.
At the time of the Jinshin War, Prince Prince Takechi is thought to have been around eighteen years old.
I believe Hitomaro was slightly younger—perhaps fifteen or sixteen.
One reason for this impression lies in the elegy that Hitomaro composed for Prince Takechi, preserved in the Man’yōshū.
Such a grand and deeply felt elegy suggests more than a formal relationship.
To me, it reads like a song offered to a noble and valiant elder brother, filled with admiration and reverence.
An elegy, of course, is a poem mourning the dead.
It is said that Hitomaro recited this poem toward Mount Kagu, where Prince Takechi’s residence once stood, perhaps from the vicinity of the Fujiwara Palace audience hall.
When the Jinshin War broke out, I imagine that Hitomaro followed the prince he so admired and fled the Ōmi capital with him.
They were accompanied by the young Prince Ōtsu, Prince Kusakabe, and Princess Ōku.
Eager to join the forces of his father, Prince Ōama (later Emperor Tenmu), Prince Takechi is said to have hidden the children at Hitomaro’s residence—possibly in Katsuragi or Isonokami—and left Hitomaro behind as their guardian.
Hitomaro’s father, Kakinomoto no Ōba, then accompanied Prince Takechi to join Ōama’s army.
This, I believe, was the “missing month” that never appears in the historical records.
I cannot prove it.
Yet it is an image that has arisen within me with striking clarity.
5. After Emperor Tenmu’s Death: The Fate of Hitomaro
Nine years after the Jinshin War, in 681, Emperor Tenmu ordered the compilation of the Teiki and Kyūji.
This project would later lead to the compilation of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki.
Even before this, I believe Tenmu recognized Hitomaro’s exceptional talent and ensured that he was thoroughly trained in Chinese language and culture.
At the time, Japanese had no indigenous writing system, and all official expression depended on classical Chinese.
Around Hitomaro, a kind of salon seems to have formed, centered on Tenmu’s sons and daughters, devoted to the study of Chinese learning in preparation for national historiography.
The poetic talents of Prince Ōtsu and Princess Ōku, among others, were likely refined in this environment.
At the same time, however, this intellectual circle became a site of political tension, where factions supporting Prince Kusakabe and Prince Ōtsu inevitably clashed.
Hitomaro’s talents flourished under Emperor Tenmu’s protection.
But in 686, only five years after commissioning the Teiki and Kyūji, Tenmu died suddenly, his chronic illness worsening.
He is thought to have been in his late fifties—an age that makes his death feel abrupt.
With Tenmu gone, pressure fell heavily on his consort Uno no Sarara.
The unusually long mourning period of two years for Tenmu reflects her hesitation and anxiety.
If left unchecked, conflict between Kusakabe, her own son, and Ōtsu, her sister’s son, could easily have led to a second Jinshin War.
A harsh decision was required to preserve the new regime.
Prince Ōtsu was executed on charges of rebellion.
Prince Kusakabe, though crown prince, later died of unknown causes.
Prince Takechi also died under mysterious circumstances after Empress Jitō’s accession.
Within less than a decade, three potential successors vanished.
Behind this, I cannot help but sense the presence of Empress Jitō and Fujiwara no Fuhito.
Hitomaro was closely connected to all the princes and knew too much.
He could easily have been eliminated.
Instead, he was kept alive—deprived of freedom, placed close to the empress as a court poet.
It was both protection and surveillance.
At the time, only Chinese could be used to record the Japanese language.
Hitomaro’s rare ability to shape Japanese expression through Chinese characters—what would later become Man’yōgana—was indispensable for compiling the Kojiki.
For that reason, perhaps, he could not be killed.
Once the Kojiki was completed, Hitomaro’s role came to an end.
Denied credit as an editor, he fulfilled his task under the name Hieda no Are, was sent to provincial posts, and eventually died under unknown circumstances.
The completion of the national myth of Amaterasu came at the cost of the silence of a genius.
That is how it appears to me.
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Hieda Moated Settlement
(Yamatokoriyama, Nara Prefecture) |
Hieda Moated Settlement and Meta Shrine(Yamatokoriyama, Nara Prefecture) |
Conclusion
In this way, the Amaterasu myth became firmly established as the foundation of the state.
Through Ise Shrine and the Saigū system, and through shrines, rituals, and sacred performances, it took root among the people.
It became the story that shaped the very framework of Japan.
Whether this account is historically accurate is no longer the central question.
For me, it is the form of understanding I reached after years of walking, thinking, and feeling my way through this landscape.
Here, I record these thoughts and bring these notes to a close.
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Heijō Palace Daigokuden (reconstructed)
The reconstructed Great Hall of State at Heijō Palace—something Kakinomoto no Hitomaro never lived to see. |